Major General Iskandar Mirza as Governor General

Major General Iskandar Mirza as Governor General

  September 09, 2019    Fantasy

---

 Background

•    Major General Iskandar Mirza was one of the 5 members selected for Ghulam Muhammad Ali’s Cabinet

•    He was not the member of Assembly

•    He was from military background and had served in British Army

•    He was Governor of East Pakistan

•    When Ghulam Muhammad Ali resigned Major Iskandar Mirza became acting Governor General

•    He was committed to take necessary actions required for Pakistan’s development

•    Drafting a constitution was amongst top of his priorities

Work and Major Developments:    1956 Constitution

•    1956, 1st constitution was adopted by 2nd Constituent Assembly
•    It was enforced on 23rd of March
•    Islamic Republic of Pakistan was official name of Pakistan in the Constitution
•    It was a compromise between two major political parties of Pakistan, Muslim League and United Front
•    Neither of the political party was satisfied
•    United Front dropped its objection to equal seats in Assembly and no longer demanded provincial autonomy
•    Bengali was accepted as official language
•    The post of Governor General was replaced by President

Challenges faced

•    The constitution lasted for only two years
•    Major General Iskandar Mirza declared martial law and scrapped the new constitution

The One Unit Policy

•    1954, Muhammad Ali Bogra suggested that 4 provinces and 10 princely states should be joined together to form West Pakistan
•    1955, Mirza passed an order unifying West Pakistan referred as One Unit Scheme

Reasons for unification:

•    It will bring greater efficiency and rapid development

•    A significant step towards united country

Critical Reasons behind Unification:

•    In Pakistan, dominant politicians were from West Pakistan and mainly from Punjab

•    The feared that East Pakistan will soon get influence as there were 10 million more Pakistanis in East Pakistan than in West Pakistan

•    By dividing Pakistan into two wings officially and ensuring equal representation in the Assembly, the One Unit Scheme prevented East Pakistan gaining majority in the Assembly

Criticism of One Unit Scheme

•    This scheme was highly unpopular in East Pakistan
•    It was opposed by provinces of West Pakistan
•    When the situation worsened Mirza dismissed Chief Minister of Sindh
•    He dissolved the state assemblies of Bahawalpur and Khairpur provinces

Major Developments

Modernization

•    Mirza started industrialization and rural development programs

•    Karachi Airport was completed

•    Modernization of Pakistan Railways continued

•    Telephone system was expanded

•    Mirza introduced government provision in health and education

East Pakistan

•    East Pakistan had always remained poor
•    They had no say in government decision making
•    The problems in East Pakistan worsened with flood and food shortages
•    When Muhammad Ali Bogra resigned Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy, politician from East Pakistan became Prime Minister of Pakistan

Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy Prime Minister of Pakistan

Background

•    When Muhammad Ali Bogra resigned Hussain Shaheed Suharwardy, politician from East Pakistan became Prime Minister of Pakistan

•    He hoped giving the most important Cabinet post to politicians from East Pakistan would help to win support from there for this government

Challenges

•    He remained in office for one year

•    He had conflict with Mirza over authority

Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar Prime Minister of Pakistan

•    1957, Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar was appointed as next Prime Minister

•    His team members had a great disagreement on major issues

•    He proved to be a weak Prime Minister and soon got removed from Mirza

Feroz Khan Noon Prime Minister of Pakistan

•    After Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar, Feroz Khan was appointed as next Prime Minister
•    His government was even more divided than Ibrahim Ismail’s
•    He formed a large cabinet comprising of 26 members out of 80 in the Assembly
•    The main aim was to bring all shades of opinion in the cabinet

Removal of Iskandar Mirza’s rule

•    With the above developments Mirza became more and more unpopular
•    According to new constitution elections were supposed to be held in 1957.
•    Mirza was reluctant to announce elections as he knew he will lose
•    Further, he was alarmed that Suharwardy was uniting major politicians from Punjab and Bengal against him
•    Using constant disagreement with government as his excuse he proclaimed Martial Law with himself as President
•    He asked the Commander in Chief, General Ayub Khan to take the charge as Martial Law Administrator
•    He appointed Ayub Khan as Prime Minister of Pakistan
•    Earlier, General Ayub Khan had declined offers of taking over government by Ghulam Muhammad Ali but he realized now it was necessary now
•    General Ayub Khan forced Mirza to resign and was exiled to London

Read More

Division of Military Assets during early days of 1947

Division of Military Assets during early days of 1947

  September 09, 2019    Fantasy

---

 Features

•    At first, British were reluctant to divide military assets but later agreed
•    Division agreement was India 44% and Pakistan 36%
•    Army personnel were given open choice to go to either Pakistani army or Indian army
•    It was agreed to split army on religions lines
•    Muslim regiments went to Pakistan
•    Non – Muslim regiments went to India
•    Detail of military assets division

                                     Pakistan              India
Armoured Divisions        6                        14
Artillery Divisions           8                        40
Infantry Divisions            8                        21
 

•    An army of 150,000 soldiers required 4,000 officers
•    There were only 2500 trained Muslim officers
•    Jinnah was forced to take 500 British officers temporarily on senior posts as there were no Muslims on those posts at all
•    Pakistan went to immediate war with India in over Kashmir dispute and it needed best army in the desperate situation
•    All 16 ordinance factories were in India and it refused to hand over any
•    Pakistan had no ordinance factory
•    India paid Rs. 60 million to Pakistan against ordinance factories and Pakistan used this amount to make one ordinance factory in Wah
•    Military supplies came late, damaged and obsolete

Read More

Divison of Financial Assets during early days of 1947

Divison of Financial Assets during early days of 1947

  September 09, 2019    Fantasy

---

Features

•    Division of assets of the country – a major issue
•    An agreement was desperately needed
•    Agreed to divide assets on the basis of division of population between both the countries
•    Financial Assets Division agreement ratio India - 17: Pakistan 5
•    Pakistan to receive Rs. 750 million out of Rs. 4 billion from Indian Reserve Bank
•    1st installment of Rs. 200 million received
•    After that war on Kashmir broke
•    Indian refused to pay with the fear that Pakistan will use it to buy weapons which will be used against India
•    Indian agreed to pay remaining amount on the condition that Pakistan should stop fighting and should agree that that Kashmir will go to India
•    India perceived that Pakistan will become bankrupt
•    Gandhi determined for just division of assets between Pakistan and India
•    He objected to Indian policy and as a supporter of non-violence, he used the threat of hunger strike and successfully persuaded India to pay a further Rs. 500 million

Read More

Accession of Princely States | Problems during early days of 1947

Accession of Princely States | Problems during early days of 1947

  September 08, 2019    Fantasy

---

Introduction

•    Total princely states 462
•    British government decided not to give them independence. They were given choice to join Pakistan or India
•    Their location or religion became their straightforward choice
•    States that went to Pakistan include
•    Dir, Swat, Chitral, Amb, Hunza, Gilgit, Kalat and Bahawalpur from West Pakistan while Sylhet voted in a referendum to East Pakistan
•    In other areas decision was difficult to make

Hyderabad

•    Largest princely state
•    Had a population of 160 million
•    Wealthy state with revenue of Rs. 160 million
•    Wanted to become dominion of UK, British government refused and asked to join either Pakistan or India
•    Ruler – Nizam of Hyderabad was Muslim but majority population was non- Muslim
•    Ruler favored joining Pakistan
•    Indian government was unhappy on this
•    Pressurized Nizam to join India instead
•    Nizam agreed to enter into a treaty with India in respect of defense, foreign affairs and communications
•    Upon further pressure by India Hyderabad filed a complaint against India in UN. Before it could be heard, Indian troops occupied Hyderabad

Junnagadh

•    A small state on the coast near to Karachi
•    Ruler Muslim and population was non-Muslim
•    Wanted to join Pakistan
•    India attacked the state and occupied it
•    Pakistan went to UN but the matter remained unresolved

The Kashmir Issue

•    Most serious dispute between Pakistan and India
•    One of the largest states in India
•    Had strategic importance as it shared borders with Tibet, China, Afghanistan and Russia at that time
•    Ruler Hindu and majority of population Muslim
•    Wanted to win independence of his state and delayed joining either Pakistan or India
•    Ruler treated population very poorly
•    Drove Muslims out of Kashmir
•    Over 200,000 fled to Pakistan
•    The situation led to rebellion
•    Indian help came when ruler agreed to join India
•    Pakistan and India fought their 1st war against each other
•    The matter was referred to UN
•    Kashmir was divided
•    Major portion went to India
•    Pakistan got angered, Lord Mountbatten pressurized India and India agreed on referendum once situation becomes normalized
•    No referendum so far and Kashmir is still the biggest dispute between both the countries

Read More

Economic Problems during early days of 1947

Economic Problems during early days of 1947

  September 04, 2019    Fantasy

---

Economic Problem

•    Pakistan was made up areas there were mostly underdeveloped
•    It had little industry and infrastructure
•    Karachi was the only modern port with substantial trading and business activity
•    90% of population lived in rural areas
•    There were only 8 cities which had population more than 100,000
•    These major cities included Karachi, Lahore, Dhaka, Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot and Peshawar
•    Pakistan was not a wealthy country
•    Pakistan’s major industry and agriculture did not produce surplus, with exception of Jute
•    East Pakistan produced 70% of world’s jute
•    Export of jute became a major source of earning valuable foreign exchange
•    Alarmingly, Pakistan had not a single jute mill. All mills were in areas which were given to India
•    Economic situation can well be explained by the following table of Percentage of economic assets in Pakistan after partition

Read More

Political Problems during early days of Partition

Political Problems during early days of Partition

  September 04, 2019    Fantasy

---

Political Problem

•    Pakistan faced more political problems than India
•    India inherited government buildings, furnishing, even trained officials from British
•    Pakistan had none of these
•    India had officials, members of Indian National Congress with political experience to run the government, taking part in elections, running Assemblies and holding public offices
•    In Pakistan, Constituent assembly consisted mainly of landlords and wealthy people with little political experience
•    Muslim League had support mainly from rural areas and lacked support from urban areas
•    Geographical distance between East and West Pakistan made it further big political challenge to run the country as one unit
•    Half of the population of Pakistan lived in East Pakistan whereas majority of government and army leaders came from West Pakistan
•    Pakistan lacked both administrative and governmental machinery to run affairs of a new country
•    Pakistan had to find a capital, a functional government, trained officials to run affairs of the country in efficient manner
•    Quaid e Azam was suffering from tuberculosis and he knew that his deteriorating health would allow him little time to live so he was resolved to make sure the new nation survived
•    As he became 1st Governor General of Pakistan, his post was supposed to be ceremonial but he ignored this and lead from the front in taking out Pakistan from these serious problems

Read More

Radcliffe Award

Radcliffe Award

  September 04, 2019    Fantasy

---

Radcliffe Award/Boundary Award

•    Till 15th of August 1947 boundary between India and Pakistan was not yet resolved
•    Sir Cyril Radcliffe was appointed by Lord Mountbatten to draw borders between newly formed countries
•    Radcliffe Award is also known as Boundary Award
•    Boundary Commission had four assistants, two nominated by Muslim League and remaining two by Congress

Reaction to Radcliffe Award

•    Muslim League was disappointed at the award
•    Calcutta was given to India even though it was surrounded by Muslim area
•    In Punjab, Ferozepur was given to India despite the fact it was Muslim dominating area. Earlier, it was given to Pakistan but later Radcliffe reversed his decision on pressure of Mountbatten
•    In Punjab, Gurdaspur was given to India despite it had Muslim majority. With this Indians had access to Kashmir. This lead to further disputes between Pakistan and India
•    Jinnah remarked the award as ‘wrong, unjust and perverse’
•    Due to other pressing matters, Muslim League couldn’t take up this unjust award

Geographical Problem

•    Pakistan and India had unnatural borders
•    Borders drawn were not just and correct
•    Country was split into two separate parts almost a thousand miles apart consisting of India
•    East Pakistan consisted of Bengal and district of Sylhet while Calcutta was given to India. Calcutta was an important city hosting major financial activities and modern trading port. It also had all jute industries while jute was mainly grown in East Pakistan with no major jute industry
•    West Pakistan comprised of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhawa
•    Princely states of Dir, Swat, Chitral, Amb, Hunza, Gilgit and Bahawalpur also jointed West Pakistan
•    Both wings had everything different but only religion common factor

The Canal Water Dispute

•    This dispute originated in the partition of Punjab in 1947
•    Pakistan is an agricultural country and its agriculture depends on waters from canals of Rivers Jehlum, Chenab and Indus
•    Flow of water from canals and rivers were controlled by headworks constructed on them went to India
•    Major dispute was on Bari – Doab Canal. India wanted to control the water as it was in their territory however, Pakistan insisted that it was economically dependent on its water so it had its right over it.
•    Pakistan wanted to settle the dispute in International Court of Justice but India refused
•    In May 1948, a temporary agreement was reached. India allowed water flow from India into Pakistan provided that Pakistan will find for alternative water supplies
•    Water problem was the most urgent problem which required a long term solution for the newly founded country

Read More

Ghulam Muhammad Ali as Governor General

Ghulam Muhammad Ali as Governor General

  September 02, 2019    Fantasy

---

Background

•    After the death of Liaquat Ali Khan Ghulam Muhammad Ali became the 3rd Governor General of Pakistan
•    Khawaja Nazim ud din became 2nd Prime Minister of Pakistan
•    Earlier, he was finance minister in the cabinet
•    He came from Civil Service background

Work

•    During his tenure, Planning Commission was set to oversee economic development
•    A six years development program was launched focusing agriculture, fuel and power, industry and mining, transport and communications and Social Uplift Scheme
•    His efforts played a vital role in bringing economic development in Pakistan

Major developments

•    A major jute processing plant was opened at Narayangjang (East Pakistan)
•    Exploration for oil/gas led to discovery of vast reserves of Natural Gas at Sui in Baluchistan

Challenges faced

•    Pakistan faced a severe drought which affected food production
•    Severe food shortages led to riots in most cities
•    Government was not well placed to face these challenges
•    On international level demand of Jute and cotton also declined which means Pakistan was making less money to buy food
•    USA agreed to donate a million tons of wheat to help Pakistan overcome food crisis

Riots under his rule

•    Pakistan faced a severe drought which affected food production
•    Severe food shortages led to riots in most cities
•    The riots also had some religious elements. Some Ulemas began campaign against the Ahmedis. They demanded all Ahmedis be dismissed from office including Zafarullah Khan, the foreign minister
•    Martial Law was imposed
•    Numerous arrests were made to bring riots under control

Constitutional Matters (Report of Nazim ud din)

•    The recommendations of the Basic Principles Committee presented to the Assembly had proved so unpopular that they were withdrawn for further consideration
•    An altered report was presented by Prime Minister, Nazim ud din which suggested
o    Head of State must be Muslim
o    House of Units with 60 members from East Pakistan and 60 members from West Pakistan
o    House of People should have 400 members with 200 members elected from each wing
o    Religious minorities would have representatives at National and Provincial levels
o    Cabinet was to be responsible to National Assembly not to the Head of State
o    Head of State would choose a committee of Islamic specialists to ensure that all legislations conformed to Islamic law
o    Official language should be settled by Assembly
Criticism to Report of Nazim ud din
•    This report also faced strict criticism
•    Prime Minister Nazim ud din decided to have further consideration on it
•    Official language was not decided yet but it had a support on Government level as Quaid e Azam suggested Urdu to be national language of Pakistan
•    East Pakistan strictly opposed this decision

Dismissal of Nazim ud din’s Government

•    1953, Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Khawaja Nazim ud din
•    He blamed him for not controlling riots that resulted from food shortages
•    He did this despite the fact that Prime Minister received a vote of confidence from the Assemblies
•    Nazim ud din was very annoyed at this decision of his removal by Ghulam Muhammad
•    New cabinet was formed and Muhammad Ali Bogra became next Prime Minister

Muhammad Ali Bogra as 3rd Prime Minister of Pakistan

•    Earlier, he was ambassador to USA
•    He became Prime Minister after Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Khawaja Nazim ud din and his cabinet due to riots resulted from food shortage
•    He wanted maximum foreign aid to boost economy
•    USA, Canada and Australia agreed to send a million ton wheat to Pakistan to overcome food crisis
•    A Planning Board was set up to produce five year plan to avoid further food shortage
•    He worked out to make Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)
•    It was aimed to involve Western aid for Pakistan, in terms of money, supplies and help of various industrial experts

Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)

•    Muhammad Ali Bogra, the 3rd Prime Minister of Pakistan formed Central Treaty Organization (CENTO)
•    He wanted maximum foreign aid to boost economy
•    It was aimed to involve Western aid for Pakistan, in terms of
o    Money
o    Supplies
o    Help of various industrial experts

1954/55 Constitutional Crisis

•    Soon there was power struggle between offices of Governor General and Prime Minister
•    Removal of Khawaja Nazim ud din by Ghulam Muhammad created great concerns
•    Ghulam Muhammad was out of country Muhammad Ali Bogra persuaded assembly to introduce a law limiting the powers of Governor General
•    Assembly repealed PRODA Act, which said that Governor General could remove ministers from the National and Provincial Governments
•    This law was approved within 15 minutes

The law contained following features

o    All ministers including Prime Minister must be members of the Assembly
o    Assembly had to approve the Cabinet
o    Governor General had to take the advice of his ministers

•    Ghulam Muhammad took this very seriously and following week when Muhammad Ali Bogra was outside country he declared state of emergency and then dissolved the Assembly
•    He chose a new cabinet, appointed Muhammad Ali Bogra as Prime Minister and selected five members of the cabinet who were not members of Assembly which also included General Ayub Khan then army chief
•    Maulvi Tamiz ud din, the speaker of the dissolved Assembly contested the dissolution in the Sindh High Court saying that dissolution had been illegal and that non – Assembly members should not be appointed in the cabinet.
•    The Sindh High Court ruled in favor of Maulvi Tamiz ud din
•    Ghulam Muhammad challenged the decision in Federal Court which overturned the decision in the favor of Ghulam Muhammad
•    1955, fresh elections were held and new assembly was formed
•    Due to illness of Ghulam Muhammad, he had to resign and he was replaced by Major General Iskandar Mirza

Read More

President Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan

President Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan

  September 01, 2019    Fantasy

---

Reasons for Military Rule:

•    To Settle Pakistan against the challenges it was facing
•    To bring political stability so that development of industry, support agriculture and maintain even a basic level of social welfare
•    To draft a constitution for Pakistan acceptable to all stakeholders

1959 Basic Democracies or Ayub Khan’s Constitutional Reforms

•    1st step was to introduce Basic Democracies Order
•    It was a 4 – tier system
•    Ordinary people elected Union Council members
•    Union Council Members in turn elect district and divisional members
•    Later in 1962 Constitution it was stated that 80,000 elected basic democrats would also form the electoral college for the election of President and Members of the Central and Provincial Legislature

Elections of Ayub Khan

•    He asked the Basic Democrats for a vote of confidence
•    Nearly 95% of them declared their confidence on him and was confirmed as President of Pakistan
•    He then announced a creation of Constitution Commission to make recommendations for a new constitution

1962 Constitution

Introduction:

•    For the 1st time in the country Presidential Form of Government was introduced
•    Ayub declared it as combining “Democracy with discipline”.
•    This constitution was introduced without debate
•    Martial Law was brought to an end
•    First act of the assembly was to remove ban on political parties

Salient Features

•    The President could not be removed unless impeached
•    The President nominated the Cabinet from the members of the National Assembly
•    The President nominated the heads of Judiciary and the provincial governors (who then nominated their cabinets)
•    The National Legislature could not pass a law without the approval of the President

Criticism:

•    It appeared that Pakistan was moving nearer to democracy but Ayub’s reforms were increasing powers of ruling elite
•    This had happened because the major landlords dominated the elections to the Basic Democracies and often used coercion or bribery to influence results
•    East Pakistan was not happy on the introduction of this constitution
•    They thought they will be having little part in governing Pakistan
•    Gradually, they started to realize that the government of Pakistan was in the strong hands of military and civil officials from West Pakistan
•    East Pakistan perceived that the Pakistan was government of West Pakistan on East Pakistan

Steps taken to address East Pakistan Concerns:

•    Both Urdu and Bengali were announced as official languages of Pakistan
•    The National Assembly session was to be held both in Islamabad and Dhaka
•    If President will be from West Pakistan then Speaker of National Assembly will be from East Pakistan

1965 Elections for Presidency

•    In January 1965 elections were held in the country
•    Ayub Khan was nominated by a new political party, Convention Muslim League, which he had helped form
•    He believed that opposition parties were too divided to put up a credible opponent against him
•    This soon proved wrong when Fatima Jinnah, sister and advisor of founder of Pakistan stood in elections against him
•    Ayub Khan got 64% and Fatima Jinnah got 36% of the votes respectively
•    Opposition Parties challenged this result and claimed that the voting had been rigged
•    There were riots in Karachi and East Pakistan and nearly 20 people got killed

Decade of Development

•    Ayub Khan is praised around the world for this great economical and social reforms and his advisors introduced number of laws

Agricultural Reforms: (Green Revolution)

•    He stated this as Green Revolution in Pakistan

Major Steps:

•    Agriculture was aimed to be more productive
•    Advisors believed that subsistence and many small holding of agriculture land could never be efficient so a law was passed stating no farm could be smaller than 12.5 acres and larger than 500 acres (irrigated) and 1000 acres (unirrigated)
•    Three major dams were built to improve irrigation
•    Farmers were given loans to build wells to reduce the need of Canal Irrigation
•    Agriculture output reached all time record high

Criticism:

•    Much of the increased productivity was due to mechanization which could generally only be afforded by big landlords

Industrial Reforms:

•    Pakistan witnessed great industrial development due to effective policies.
•    Economy growth rate reached to 7% which was three times that of India.

Major Steps:

•    Process of industrialization was speed up by taking loans from western countries and lending money to industries
•    1962, an oil refinery was set up in Karachi and Mineral Development Corporation set up for exploration of mineral deposits
•    1964, Economic Union was established between Iran and Turkey called Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) in which these three countries agreed to develop ties in trade, commerce and industry
•    An export benefit scheme was set up offering incentive to industrialists who increased exports

Criticism:

•    He stated this as Green Revolution in Pakistan
•    Though Pakistan showed great progress but poor people felt very little positive impact of it.
•    The new wealth created due to industrial growth made rich richer and poor poorer
•    1968, a report revealed that only 22 families of Pakistan were controlling 66% of Pakistan’s industrial assets
•    These same 22 families controlled 80% of Pakistan’s Banking and Insurance companies
•    Pakistan got heavily dependent on foreign aid

Social and Educational Reforms:

•    A new curricula was drawn and new books were published
•    The government began extensive literacy program, building  new schools and colleges
•    There was an attempt to deal with shelter less people
•    75,000 refugees were settled in newly built houses
•    Laws were passed that factory owners have to provide accommodation to workers
•    Ayub’s government tried to control population growth and he set up Family Planning Program funded largely by American loans
•    Radio, cinema, newspapers, posters and leaflets were used to educate Pakistanis to limit size of their families
•    Medical facilities were improved

Criticism:

•    The program of Family Planning was not successful

A New Capital:

•    Karachi was capital of Pakistan since independence
•    1959, site of Islamabad was finalized for new capital
•    1967, Islamabad was official declared as capital of Pakistan
•    It is a modern and carefully planned city
•    Secretariat Blocks are the administrative and planning nerve of the country
•    They occupy an area of 92,000 sq. m
•    The city is divided into eight largely self-contained zones each characterized by its predominant usage (like diplomatic enclave, educational sector etc) each with its own park and shopping area

Political Unrest:

•    1965, Pakistan went to war with India over Kashmir
•    Ayub’s Government provoked India into war
•    Neither side won the war
•    Tashkent Peace Treaty had no reference to how Kashmir issue will be resolved
•    Ayub Khan blamed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto for the failings in the war

Decline of Ayub’s Government

•    1968, many people were discontented from Ayub’s rule
•    It was criticized for being undemocratic as there were accusations of intimidation and rigging of votes
•    Economy was improving but only few people were gaining benefit of it
•    Agriculture production was rising but so were food prices
•    1968, there were student protests all over West Pakistan
•    There was a failed assassination attempt
•    Ayub carried out massive arrests that further angered opposition
•    1969, 8 political parties got united to form Democratic Action Committee
•    Their major demands were
o    Lifting of emergency
o    Power and autonomy for East Pakistan
•    Ayub Khan took counter measures to control the situation
•    He under took following steps
o    Lifted emergency
o    Released political people who were arrested
o    Negotiated with opposition
•    But his efforts were too little and too late
•    Ayub’s Basic Democrats resigned in large numbers and his party lost support of people very rapidly
•    When he realized the situation was getting out of his hands, he resigned
•    Instead of announcing new elections for the choice of new President, he handed over power to army and Pakistan witnessed its second martial law

Read More

Khawaja Nazim ud din as Governor General

Khawaja Nazim ud din as Governor General

  September 01, 2019    Fantasy

---

Background

•    14th September 1948 Khawaja Nazim ud din became 2nd Governor General of Pakistan
•    He was the leader of Muslim League
•    He was Chief Minister of East Pakistan
•    Talented, honest and respected politician
•    Close associate and trusted friend of Quaid e Azam
•    Assisted 1st Prime Minister of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan to run the government
•    Role of Governor General became less important

Liaquat Ali Khan 

 

Pakistan’s 1st Prime Minister

First task – to make a constitution of Pakistan acceptable to all stakeholders
Government of India Act 1935
•    There will be a Governor General reporting to British Secretary of State for India in London
•    Governor General advised by Executive Council
•    Had great powers
•    Two houses of parliaments
•    Provincial assemblies and provincial ministers at Provincial level
Immediate Government problems after Independence
•    Pakistan to be ruled under Indian Independence Act – amended version of Government of India Act 1935
•    A Constituent Assembly was set up to frame a constitution
•    Until then Governor General would control government with the help of Cabinet
•    No effective Cabinet as no well – organized political party system and no stable majority of Prime Minister in Assembly
•    So office of Governor General became more important specially when Quaid e Azam became 1st Governor General of Pakistan

Objective Resolution

 

•    The Constituent Assembly set up a Basic Principles Committee to decide principles on which new constitution should be based
•    25 members – about a third of Assembly
•    Findings were contained in a document called Objective Resolution – passed on 12th March 1949

Declaration of Objective Resolution

•    Constitution should be based on principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice as laid down by Islam
•    Muslims will be able to lead their lives according to Islam
•    Other religions will be given complete religious freedom
•    Minorities and poor would be protected from social injustice
•    All fundamental human rights will be guaranteed
•    The Legal system should be independent of government

Critical evaluation of Objective Resolution

•    It contained several references to Islam to avoid criticism from Ulama
•    No timescale set down for
o    completing a constitution,
o    holding of first elections,
o    any agreement how these objectives will be met

Working of Basic Principle Committee

•    Bicameral legislature recommended with equal powers
•    President to be elected by the two Houses
•    Urdu to be the national language of the country

Basic Criticism of Proposals

•    East Pakistan had a larger population so they criticized equal representation in National Assembly
•    East Pakistan criticized of making Urdu as national language as majority of population spoke Bengali
•    Provincial politicians objected on giving powers to Head of State and to Federal Government
•    Religious groups complained that the constitution was not sufficiently Islamic
 During the process, Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated. His death further worsened the process and came to stand still till the new leaders was found, elected and got settled

Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act - PRODA

Subtitled as;
“An Act for the debarring from public office for a suitable period of persons judicially found guilty of misconduct in any public office or any representative capacity in any matter therein”
•    By this act complaints could be made to the Governor General or Provincial Governors who could order an enquiry by judges.
•    Anyone found guilty under PRODA was debarred from office
•    The law was designed to eliminate corruption but in reality it allowed the ruling elite to remove those who it did not approve of

Refugees Problem – A Grave Emergency

•    Quaid e Azam called refugee problem in Pakistan “A Grave Emergency”
•    Set up Central Refugee Council to deal with it
•    Prime Ministers of both the countries India and Pakistan met and signed Liaquat Ali Khan - Nehru Pact
•    It was agreed that each government was responsible for the safety of minority groups within its borders
•    Free passage of refugees across the border was restricted and a visa system for refugees was introduced

Liaquat – Nehru Pact

•    Handling and dealing with refugees was the biggest challenge for both the newly formed countries
•    Quaid e Azam called refugee problem in Pakistan “A Grave Emergency”
•    Prime Ministers of both the countries India and Pakistan met and signed Liaquat - Nehru Pact
•    It was agreed that each government was responsible for the safety of minority groups within its borders
•    Free passage of refugees across the border was restricted and a visa system for refugees was introduced

Hyderabad Issue

•    Largest princely state
•    Had a population of 160 million
•    Wealthy state with revenue of Rs. 160 million
•    Wanted to become dominion of UK, British government refused and asked to join either Pakistan or India
•    Ruler – Nizam of Hyderabad was Muslim but majority population was non- Muslim
•    Ruler favored joining Pakistan
•    Indian government was unhappy on this
•    Pressurized Nizam to join India instead
•    Nizam agreed to enter into a treaty with India in respect of defense, foreign affairs and communications
•    Upon further pressure by India Hyderabad filed a complaint against India in UN. Before it could be heard, Indian troops occupied Hyderabad
•    UN organized a cease fire between India and Pakistan but there was no agreement or settlement of this dispute so tensions were mounting

Kashmir Issue

•    Most serious dispute between Pakistan and India
•    One of the largest states in India
•    Had strategic importance as it shared borders with Tibet, China, Afghanistan and Russia at that time
•    Ruler Hindu and majority of population Muslim
•    Wanted to win independence of his state and delayed joining either Pakistan or India
•    Ruler treated population very poorly
•    Drove Muslims out of Kashmir
•    Over 200,000 fled to Pakistan
•    The situation led to rebellion
•    Indian help came when ruler agreed to join India
•    Pakistan and India fought their 1st war against each other
•    The matter was referred to UN
•    Kashmir was divided
•    Major portion went to India
•    Pakistan got angered, Lord Mountbatten pressurized India and India agreed on referendum once situation becomes normalized
•    No referendum so far and Kashmir is still the biggest dispute between both the countries
Army Leaders
Or

Rawalpindi Conspiracy

•    In 1951 Sir Douglas Gracey was the British Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army who was replaced by General Ayub Khan, a Pakistani
•    Since partition many army officers had complained about the presence of British army officers at key senior positions but by 1951 most army officers were Pakistani
•    Despite this, some of the army officers were unhappy at the government and planned a coup to take over the government
•    In March 1951, Rawalpindi Conspiracy was discovered by Ayub Khan
•    Conspirators were arrested, tried and imprisoned
•    Among them there was Major General Akbar Khan, Chief of General Staff and 14 other officers
•    Liaquat Ali Khan had survived his first coup
•    His success was to be short lived and he was assassinated while addressing a public meeting in Rawalpindi in 1951
•    He was a famous leader and worked hard for the country and was given the title of Shaeed e millat (martyr for the cause of the nation)

Read More

Quaid e Azam as Governor General Pakistan

Quaid e Azam as Governor General Pakistan

  September 01, 2019    Fantasy

---

Quaid e Azam and his early death

•    He became first Governor General of Pakistan
•    His early death created further problems for Pakistan

Successes of Quaid e Azam as Governor General

•    He was successful in setting up basic institutions of Pakistan like State Bank of Pakistan
•    He also set a strong footing of civil service of Pakistan
•    He titled himself to be Protector General of Refugees and declared Refugee crisis as a Grave Emergency ensuring to take all necessary steps required for the betterment and settlement of largest migration of people in the history of mankind

Problems faced by his successors

•    Pakistan – a poor country
•    People living close to subsistence level
•    Land owners dominating in politics – supported Muslim League – held seats in National Assembly
•    Relations with India poor – Kashmir Issue
•    Uniting the country as one unit – Pakistan had 5 different regions with different languages
•    No constitution and no clear role of posts of Governor General and Prime Minister

Read More

The Reign of Aurangzeb and decline of Mughal Empire

The Reign of Aurangzeb and decline of Mughal Empire

  September 01, 2019    Fantasy

---

Aurangzeb Seizes Control

•    In 1657 Shah Jehan fell seriously ill
•    This presented a serious problem for the Empire as he had four sons, all of whom were of mature age, were all Governors of important parts of the Empire and had large armies available
•    They all wanted to be the emperor
•    When it appeared that Shah Jehan was dying, they began to jostle for power
•    Two of them, Shah Shuja and Murad, actually had coins struck in their name showing them as the new Emperor. However, the eldest son, Dara Shikoh, was thought to be the emperor’s preferred successor.
•    Before he could establish himself in power, it seemed that he could not because in 1658 two of his brothers, Murad and Aurangzeb, joined forces and defeated Dara Shikoh’s army
•    But then Shah Jehan recovered and ordered his sons not to march on Agra
•    Aurangzeb replied that his father had lost control and it was important that he, Aurangzeb, take over and re-establish order
•    In May 1658 he defeated the Imperial army, led by Dara Shikoh and took his father prisoner
•    Shah Jehan was allowed to remain in Agra until his death in 1666, where he was buried in the Taj Mahal

The Fate of Aurangzeb's brothers

•    Murad imprisoned and later executed.
•    Shah Shuja was killed whilst trying to raise an army to oppose his brother.
•    Dara Shikoh imprisoned and later executed

The impact of Aurangzeb’s Polices on the Stability of the Mughal Empire

•    After defeating the Imperial army Aurangzeb took steps to establish himself as an Emperor and fought number of battles to strengthen himself
•    There was a war against
•    the Rajputs
•    rebellions by Sikhs
•    the Satnamis in Mewar and
•    the Jats in Gokal
•    He also fight a tough campaign against Pathan tribes in his attempt to expand northward
•    Perhaps most costly for Aurangzeb was the campaign fought against the Maratha tribe in the Deccan
•    Maratha leader, Shivaji, was originally defeated and brought as a prisoner to Agra
•    He escaped and was soon back in the Deccan leading fight against Aurangzeb
•    Even after 25 years of fighting Aurangzeb had not defeated the Marathas
•    But he almost emptied the Mughal treasury
•    At the time of his death, Mughal Empire was a mighty one it had ever been

Aurangzeb’s Reforms

Intolerant to religion by some historians

•    Historians are divided about Aurangzeb’s attitude to religion
•    Some say that he was intolerant and wanted to destroy other religions
•    They point out that he re-introduced the tax on non-Muslims, the Jizya
•    He destroyed a number of Hindu temples and he tried to ban some old Hindu practices, such as suttee
•    He also enforced Islamic law making Hindus and Sikhs live according to the Quran

Not intolerant to religion according to other historians

•    Other historians argue that Aurangzeb was not intolerant
•    But that he was more ‘orthodox’ than earlier Emperors
•    They emphasize that he employed some Hindu advisors
•    And there are recorded instances of him making donations to Hindu temples.

Views about his success as an Emperor

His strict laws

•    There are mixed views how successful was Aurangzeb
•    He is criticized for his number of measures including
•    Appointing censors of public morals
•    Banning the consumption of alcohol
•    stopping singing and dancing at ‘court’
•    Determining the maximum length for beards
•    But to many people these were wise and needy measures helping to ensure that peoples’ lives were lived in the correct manner

Taxes

•    Aurangzeb made himself popular with traders by abolishing many local taxes
•    But generally taxation was very high during his reign

Reasons for imposing high taxes

•    He needed money to fight wars
•    The wars against Marathas proved to be the costliest
•    He build luxurious palaces
•    Just for his own private prayers he built Pearl Mosque in Delhi

Start of decay of Mughal Empire

•    Imposition of high taxes made Aurangzeb unpopular

The Effectiveness of Aurangzeb’s Successors

Succession Problems after Aurangzeb’ death

•    Aurangzeb had become emperor by defeating his rivals in battle
•    He was determined to avoid such a war after his death so he divided the Empire between his three sons But he did not succeed
•    Fighting broke out between them
•    Prince Muazzum established himself as Emperor
•    He survived only a few years and then his four sons fought over the throne
•    But the victor, Jahandar Shah, was murdered within a year
•    In the ten years after Aurangzeb’s death, twelve different people claimed to be Emperor at one time. The stable Mughal Empire had become weak and divided.
•    Muhammad Shah became emperor in 1719 and ruled for almost thirty years, but he faced so much opposition, that he was really the last Mughal leader who could claim to be emperor.

Invading Forces or threats from enemies

The Persians – Foreign invasion

•    Persian leader, Nadir Shah invaded the Mughal empire
•    He defeated Muhammad Shah's forces
•    After that he captured and sacked Delhi, taking over territories west of the Indus
•    Nadir Shah did not intend to make himself emperor, but only to win as much booty as possible
•    After two months when he left, he took huge amounts of gold and jewels
•    He also took prestige of the Mughals
•    Now people saw how weak the empire had been

The Marathas – rebels within Mughal Empire

•    Another problem for the Mughals was the Marathas
•    They formed a Hindu empire in southern India and were a constant source of difficulty for the Mughals
•    Aurangzeb spent over 25 years trying to defeat the Maratha forces and after his death, they continued to take land from the Mughals
•    In 1737 they defeated Mughal army and plundered Delhi
•    Soon Marathas had replaced the Mughals as the most powerful force in India

The Afghans – Foreign Invasion

•    A third invading force came from Afghanistan
•    An Afghan general Ahmad Shah Durrani attacked Kabul, Peshawar and Lahore
•    He gained control of the Punjab, Kashmir and Multan
•    The weakness of the Mughal Empire can be seen by the fact that the Mughals were unable to stop Maratha or Afghan expansion

The End of the Empire

•    Ahmad Shah Durrani helped place Muhammad Shah’s son, Ahmed Shah on the Mughal throne
•    However, the empire he ruled was shrinking rapidly, as the unrest in the empire continued to increase
•    Indeed, Ahmed Shah was imprisoned in his own court and died in captivity
•    His successor, Alamgir II, was assassinated on the orders of his chief minister and the next emperor, Shah Alam II
•    He remained in Bihar and chose not to return to Delhi for another twelve years

Rising of British

•    Shah Alam II suffered defeat at the hands of the British at the Battle of Buxar
•    Shah Alam’s defeat led to the British taking control of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa
•    Soon they also occupied Delhi and placed the emperor under ‘British protection’
•    The British were now winning a stranglehold on India
•    The two emperors ruled in name only
•    Shah Alam’s son, Akbar II ruled parts of Delhi
•    His son, Bahadur Shah II was expelled for his part in the War of Independence
•    He died in exile in Rangoon
•    The once-mighty Mughal Empire was over

Read More

The Mughal Empire - Introduction

The Mughal Empire - Introduction

  September 01, 2019    Fantasy

---

Babur: The first Mughal Emperor

•    The first Mughals were a ruling family from Central Asia
•    First Mughal Emperor in India was Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur
•    Babur was a Muslim who ruled in Turkestan and was keen to expand his territory
•    In 1526 he defeated the Emperor of Delhi in the Battle of Panipat
•    He then defeated other Indian chiefs and established himself as unchallenged ruler of northern India
•    Babur ruled northern India for just four years before he died

Humayan: A Troubled Reign

•    Babur was succeeded in 1530 by his son, Humayan
•    The Afghan Chief Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in battle and took control many of his territories
•    Humayan also had to face opposition from his own brothers
•    But he successfully restored control in the lands that Babur had won
•    Just one year later he fell from the steps of his library and died 

Akbar: The Empire Extended

•    Although he was only 13 years old when he became emperor
•    Akbar, extended the Mughal Empire
•    He announced his own religion 'Din-e-lllahi', a new religion containing elements of Islam and Hinduism
•    This religion did not take root and died out after Akbar's death.
•    Akbar ruled for almost fifty years
•    At his death the Mughal Empire was strong and the foundations had been laid for other emperors to continue to expand the lands under Mughal control.

Jehangir (emperor who signed treaty with British)

•    After the death of Akbar Jehangir, his son became next emperor
•    The expansion of Mughal Empire continued under Jehangir
•    It was Jehangir who signed a commercial treaty with British in 1615 without realizing that the British would eventually overthrow the Mughals

Shah Jehan(built Taj Mahal)

•    Jehangir's son, Khurram took the throne under the name Shah Jehan
•    He was responsible for building the famous Taj Mahal, in memory of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal
•    Shah Jehan also tried to extend the empire in campaigns against the Persians and in modern day Uzbekistan
•    But his wars were were costly and ineffective
•    He defeated Portuguese

Read More